English Embroidery 1600-1699 Part One

Stuart Kings
James I 1603
Charles I 1625
(Oliver Cromwell 1653-1658)
Charles II 1660
James II 1685
William III & Mary II 1689

James I of England (VI of Scotland) was the first king to rule Scotland and England. James I had a troubled reign which included the “Gunpowder” plot (where Guy Fawkes tried to blow up the houses of Parliament and the government). When King James died the country was close to war with Spain.

Coat worn by James I at his marriage in 1603

The Reign of Charles I saw civil war and the beheading of the king. This is the time of puritans who took part in colonizing the America’s, an unsettled time.

The monarchy was restored with Charles II in 1660. William III was the head of the protestant cause in Europe and took the throne on 1689.



Like the Tudor Kings the Stuarts placed great emphasis on public, flamboyant displays of clothing to enhance their status. James I, although not particularly flamboyant himself admired good looking, well dress courtiers. A preoccupation that led to court fashions of great extravagance.

His daughters wedding outfit was described as “a rich white Florence cloth of silver… Embroidered all over with silver purl, purl purl and plate, lined with taffeta and trimmed with rich purled lace and goldsmiths work”.

The Coat of Arms of Charles II, worked in gold, silver and coloured threads. c1670

For men, by the 1630 the exaggerated, padded doublet was replaced with a more slimming, elegant look. The waistline of the doublet was raised and the skirts lengthened. Decoration was still lavish but was made up of less expensive materials – bows, buttons and braids replaced gem-studded fabrics. Cloaks continued to be used to make a fashion statement.

Cloak embroidered with silver gilt thread c1670

About 1610 women’s fashion developed into a jacket or waistcoat becoming a fashionable alternative to the rigid busked bodice. It fitted closely to the waist and then flared. Ribbons, buttons and hooks and eyes were used as fasteners. The jacket was usually heavily embroidered with a circular coiling stem that enclosed birds, flowers, fruit, small animals and insects.

Lady Elizabeth Powis, early 1630's.
The bodice is embroidered with a coiling pattern encircling flowers, insects and fruits. The larger designs on the skirt include a pineapple tree, birds, butterflies and flowers.

Female dress in the early 1620’s had a narrower, more elongated line, a higher waistline, less bulky skirts and long hanging sleeves. Brocaded silks were seen rather than the busy floral embroidery of the previous decade.


When Charles I ascended the throne in 1625 and married a French princess the court fashions were influenced by French taste leading to slashed or paned doublets, large brimmed hats and long tapering breeches for men and a shorter bodice for women.

Plain silks and satins were used in preference to heavily embroidered fabrics.

During the Civil War the puritans (who were in charge of Parliament and the laws), wore very plain clothes and it was often necessary to appear with little embellishment and embroidery to retain ones status. The lavish embroidered, beaded and gem studded clothes of the last few centuries were now outdated (for a while at least).


There are records at this time, of women designing their own embroidery projects but these were more often household furnishings than clothes. Professional embroiderers travelled from house to house designing and working embroideries. The complex style of Jacobean embroidery and the lavish use of silver and gold thread made ready made items expensive.

The restoration of the monarchy in 1660 once again led to an extravagant show of costumes by the King and courtiers. Ribbons were a popular accessory - often used in large quantities. The fashion industry, which suffered during the civil unrest began to grow again. Charles II interest in fashion led him to promote changes in male dress, a course of action he hoped would stimulate native industries and simplify dress at court.

Portraits from this time often show nobles wearing “nightgowns”, underwear and informal dress and so there are few paintings of formal attire to show any possible embroidery.

Gentleman's cap 1620

The plague in 1665 and the Great Fire of London in 1666 again had an adverse effect on the fashion industry as a significant part of the London population was affected.

By the end of the century the male tailors position as the only person who made clothing was challenged by the female seamstresses. Seamstresses took on the making of gowns as well as underwear and accessories.

Samplers

Sorry for the delay - have been finding typing a bit painful after whiplash and wrist injures when I crashed my car. Anyway here we go with a quick summary of "Samplers";


There are a huge number of embroidery stitches - all based on simple movements of the needle. Before the widespread use of books and patterns "samplers" of stitches were often created. A sampler began simply as a piece of cloth with examples of stitches and patterns. These acted as reminders and pattern references - and were often handed down through the generations. Some were decorative, others practical (as in darning samplers).

Some used very simple stitches to decorate the fabric, other more complex, some altered the fabric with cut work. There were "spot samplers" of motifs,"band samplers" showing borders and repetitive patterns and often a mix of the two.

Domestic staff would take samplers along to prove their needlework skills to new employers.

Later they were often created by small children of the upper classes (as young as 4yrs old) to practise and improve their skills.


All of the samplers below are English and shown in chronological order so that you can see the progression from reference works to art works.

Early 17th century

Early 17th century


Mid 17th Century

Left 1633, right mid 17th Century

1649

1660

1661

Early 18th Century


Late 18th Century

1830

1837

English Embroidery 1500-1599 Part 2 – including Blackwork

Having had several really supportive comments I've decided to go ahead with this blog.... thanks to those who wrote to me.

I was hoping to have a new book to help expand this chapter - "Queen Elizabeths Wardrobe Un'locked" by Janet Arnold but it's not arrived from Amazon yet.

During the Reformation (when the churches and abbeys in England were closed by Henry VIII) much of the finest English embroidery was destroyed. A great loss to our heritage.

Following the Reformation was a period of relative stability in England when the decorative arts reached new standards of quality. English needlework became more domestic and high quality work was done by amateurs rather than by professionals. Needlework was seen as a suitable pastime for the ladies of the court and Elizabeth I’s women were especially noted for their fine work. Artists were employed to draught designs and pattern books became influential.

Detail from The Life of Henry VIII, artist unknown. c. 1545
Showing embroidered costumes, canopy and cushions.

The court of Elizabeth was affluent – money was incoming from new territories and piracy on the seas. There was money to spend on highly decorative clothing and accessories. The court was full of examples of embroidered items – not only clothes, but also bags, shoes and household items. Some items have survived, other details come from portraits such as the one below of Bess of Hardwick.

Bess of Hardwick 1560
The bodice, sleeves and collar are embroidered with a geometric pattern of interlaced circles

Bess married four times, each time she accumulated wealth from her deceased husbands and eventually became Countess of Shrewsbury and one of the richest women in England. She was a good friend of Elizabeth I, built Hardwick House and extensively extended Chatsworth House. Bess was a renowned needlewoman and, as wife to the jailer of Mary Queen of Scots, spent much time in the Scottish Queens company. Mary Queen of Scots was also an excellent and prolific needlewoman.

Queen Elizabeth’s wardrobe inventory of 1600 lists a gown of “black satten, embroidered all over with roses and pauncies and a border of oaken leaves”. Tudor and Elizabethan portraits show magnificent embroidery. Intricate patterns were embroidered on every available space, frequently highlighted with jewels.

Elizabeth I c.1585-90

On New years Day everyone in Elizabeth I’s household was expected to give her a gift. Embroidered “sweetbags” were popular choices and they were often embellished with gold and silver thread along with spangles (like sequins) and pearls.

A "sweetbag" - purple velvet embroidered with gold and silver threads and pearls

Shoes worn indoors (slippers) were often made from velvet and decorated with embroidery and trimmed with lace and spangles.

During the Renaissance a new class of affluent merchants arose. They emulated the nobility with fine furnishing and costumes creating a new demand for embroidery.

Renaissance designs were often formally symmetrical, non-figurative and with “Mooresque” or “Arabesque” influence. In 1600 the East India Trading Company began to import from India and Asia and designs were inevitably influenced by this (more on this in the crewelwork section).

Flowers were a familiar recurring theme. By 1550 several pattern books for embroidery were available throughout Europe.

A red satin cushion c.1600
Decorated with naturalistic flowers and fruit within heart shaped tendrils, all in metal thread

Blackwork, popular with Elizabethans, is probably Persian in origin – coming to England via Catherine of Aragon (the first wife of Henry VIII who came from Arab influenced Spain).

Simple stitches (double running and back stitch) are used to create complex scrolling or geometric patterns. Because it is a counted method it requires even weave fabric (same number of warp and weft fibres per inch) so it suited linen which was the main fabric for those that could afford it.

For the nobility the delicate Blackwork was sometimes embellished with jewels. Work on cuffs and ruffs was particularly fine as the work could be seen from both the back and front. Blackwork has also been found on caps, purses and pillow covers.

Black thread was most commonly used but examples of red and blue thread are found.

Later in the sixteenth century fruits and flower designs were introduced. Segments were outlined and filled with patterns. This type of blackwork is not often reversible and was used on the main clothing rather than collars and cuffs. Shading was achieved with very small stitches. Often gold and silver threads and metal spangles were added as highlights.

Headress, late C16th.
Embellished with gilt spangles

On larger Blackwork pieces the infilling patterns were varied with contrasting textures that were probably influenced by needlepoint lace.

Countess of Bath 1575. Bold flowers and strapwork in blackwork

LINKS

More info on blackwork

http://www.blackworkarchives.com/

http://www.simplyblackwork.com/

http://www.prettyimpressivestuff.com/blackwork.htm

Photographs of original articles

http://www.elizabethancostume.net/headwear/coifpics.html

Pattern books

http://www.shipbrook.com/jeff/bookshelf/details.html?bookid=25

http://www.antiquepatternlibrary.org/completelist.htm

C16th designs

http://web.archive.org/web/20040411213908/http:/infotrope.net/sca/textiles/embroidery/blackwork-sources/

Next week we look at samplers.

Welcome to 2009 and the years 1500-1599 part one.

Before I start - something VERY important to discuss. Several people have commented that they are concerned about students copying this blog word for word.

Please tell me what you think. Leave a comment or email me.

Should I continue?

Please note - that what I write on the blog might be available to the world - but the COPYRIGHT of the words is MINE! PLEASE respect this.

If you are a student of embroidery and you simply copy this blog you are loosing out on so much by not doing the research yourself.

The Kings & Queens

Tudor Kings

Henry VIII 1509

Edward VI 1547

Lady Jane Grey 1553

Mary I 1553

Elizabeth I 1558

The Tudor Kings ruled from 1485 starting with Henry VII, who, by marrying Elizabeth of York, ended the War of the Roses. The Tudor reign, which continued until the death of Elizabeth I, brought a peaceful and prosperous era. Which in turn lead to a flourishing of the arts including extravagant embroidery. Henry VII was noted for his flamboyant padded and embroidered outfits.

In the early part of the sixteenth century men’s clothing underwent an innovation in fashion. The hose, which had previously covered the male body from waist to feet developed into two separate garments. The upper breeches covered the waist to mid-thigh and lower stockings which were attached by ties or metal tags. The codpiece developed and was laced to the doublet and hose.

Henry VIII in later life 1537

Interalced gold braid, jewels and slashing (where the under shirt is pulled through).

During Henry VIII reign the basic female dress was the kirtle and gown. Until about 1545 the word kirtle referred to a garment with a square décolletage that fitted the body closely to mid thigh and then fell in folds to the ground. After 1545 the bodice and skirt were made separately and the kirtle became the name for the skirt.

Lady Mary Sidney 1555.

The bodice has a high standing collar - derived from the Spanish fashion - and it is turned outwards to display the embroidered lining. Embroidery on the sleeves matches the collar.

Bodices were made in two halves and laced at the sides. Sleeves were attached with ties. Undergarments were often embroidered at the neck and ends of sleeves.

Court fashions inevitably changes as the Kings and Queens changed (or for Henry VIII as the wives changed!) The court of Anne Boylen had a French influence (she spent several years in France), the court of Mary Tudor was influenced by Spain (she married a Spaniard), these court influences inevitably affected costume and embroidery design.

During the Tudor dynasty the English courtiers were known for their fine clothes. In 1595 a foreign envoy reported “Earls, lords and knights - they all wore gold and silver dress and their raiment embroidery with precious stones and pearls”.

Robert, Earl of Dudley 1575-80

(Queen Elizabeth's constant companion and advisor)

Only a small number of articles remain from this period – mainly gloves, jackets, coifs etc.- and these were mainly made by the domestic embroiderer. Of the clothes worn by the Tudor court only the portraits remain.

More next week! - if the comments are favourable.

English Embroidery 1400-1499

This century is a transition towards the Tudor costumes we all love. Dress became more structured and embroidery started to become less fashionable.

I have included a note on Textile Dyeing at this time and provided links to much more information and examples of the colours available. Take a look - its really fascinating just how they dyed cloth and how there were trade routes for exotic ingredients even in this century.

The Kings

Plantagenet Kings (continued)

Henry V 1413

Henry VI 1422

Edward IV 1461

Edward V 1483

Richard III 1483

Tudor Kings

Henry VII 1485

The fifteenth century was mainly the era of the Plantagenet Kings. There was continued rivalry with the French who contested English claims on the French throne. 1455-1485 saw armed conflict within England (The “War of the Roses”) for the English crown.

In the fifteenth century the “modern” system of cutting and fitting was developed. The sleeves of a garment were specially cut and curved at the top. Women’s clothing developed to a separate bodice and skirt. Padding is introduced and men’s shoulders become padded and exaggerated. Long draping sleeves go out of fashion and pleats and gathers become more common. Men’s trousers develop a gusset and are no longer tied to a waist belt but to the inner jacket.

Towards the end of the fifteenth century both men and women’s costume changes. For men the white linen shirt (worn as an undergarment) is exposed at the neck and sleeves. The top garment is open from the neck to waist and the space is filled with a stomacher, which was often highly decorated. On occasion a long gown was worn with turned back lapels and slits for the arms. Shoes changed from being pointed to square toed.

Late fifteenth century costume

Women’s necklines became square cut and a stomacher was often worn in the front of the bodice. Skirts became less gathered and trains were buttoned to the bodice.

Civilian dress

The Broderers’ Company was established in 1430 to protect the interests of the workshops over the lower standards of the self-employed.

Where dogs, deer and ships were seen in the embroidery of previous centuries in the fifteenth century pomegranates and artichokes became common. William Morris, designing in the Nineteenth century was highly influenced by fifteenth century design.

Heraldic tabards were popular and they were often made from silk and velvet laid onto linen. The motifs were embroidered with a combination of appliqué and stitch.

Heraldic Motifs and shoe designs

LINKS

Broderers guild here

A note on medieval textile dyeing

This is just a quick note – see the links for lots of information on the web and examples of the colours dyers were able to produce in the medieval times.

To understand the colours used in the embroideries the past, it is important to appreciate the dyes available to the practitioners of the time.

The extent and sophistication of the textile dyeing industry in Britain is difficult to assess at the time of the Norman Conquest and the century preceding. Following the collapse of the Roman Empire the textile and dyeing industries inevitably declined and institutions such as the Imperial Dye works at Winchester fell into disrepair.

Before the formation of the medieval guilds the dyeing industry was unregulated and unrecorded and so little information is available to us. Information can be gained from surviving costume and wall hangings.

Prior to the sixteenth century the dye stuffs in use would have been native to Europe. Indigo, brazilwood and turmeric were available from the East but were not in common use, except in Italy where a prolific dyeing trade was established. After the discovery of America and the opening of sea routes to India and the Far East tropical dyes were readily available and included logwood, annatto, brazilwood, indigo and cochineal.

The “Sumptuary Laws” were enacted a various times during the Middle Ages. In England they remained on the statue book from 1337 to 1604. The laws restricted the colour, materials and even the types of garments that classes of society were able to wear. The justification for these restrictions was to “reduce expenditure on unnecessary luxury and sinful pride” but really they were to differentiate the upper and lower classes.

Guilds for dyers would control the quality of the work produced. Lead seals were often used and were attached to lengths of cloth to indicate that the fabric had passed inspection. Seals were also used to indicate the type of dyeing used. Dyers were often forced to work outside the town or city boundaries, due to the unpleasant odours and the water population from the dyes.

Mordants are required to “fix” some dyes. Most mordants would have been extracts from rock alum, iron-rich mud and naturally occurring mineral deposits. When an alkali was needed stale urine or wood ash would be used. Acids were derived from rhubarb leaves, or acidic fruits.

LINKS

Example of the colours available here

Recipes for natural dyeing here

Dyeing and Dyers guilds info here

More recipes and lots more information here

History of English Embroidery 1300-1399

This chapter looks at Goldwork and is considered by some to be the finest time of English Embroidery. Apologies for the change in font size - for some reason blogger just will not let me change it!!!

The Kings

Edward II 1307

Edward III 1327

Richard II 1377

Henry IV 1399

In the fourteenth century garments were fitted closer to the body than in the previous century. By 1310 there is evidence of a tight “sheath” type garment for both sexes. Belts were worn low on the hips, sleeves were fanciful and shoes long and pointed. A full circle cloak was the most common outer garment.

Mens (top) and womens (bottom) clothing from the fourteenth century.

It is a quirk of history that we have examples of fourteenth century embroidery but very little documentary evidence to indicate how it was designed and produced. In contrast we have documentary evidence from the royal courts, but very few embroidered examples.

By the beginning of the fourteenth century the royal household had its own workshop and demanded quality work in a short space of time. Documents show that in 1330 three counterpanes were embroidered for the churching ceremony of Queen Phillipa (cleansing ceremony after childbirth). 112 men and women along with 2 artists worked to complete the commission.

The Leopards of England
Work in couched gold thread are a fragment believed to have come from a horse cover made for Edward III. c. 1330-1340

Heraldic patterns were often embroidered on the costumes of the wealthy and these carried their own symbolism. Heraldic patterns are clearly seen on the depictions of the robes of Richard II and Queen Anne.

Heraldic Patterns

By the C13th church vestments had become a lucrative industry and workshops of male embroiderers produced vestments and also items for foreign orders, domestic use and for the wealthy.

English chasuble of red velvet with appliquéd work.

Syon Cope c. 1300-1320

The Bologna Cope c.1315-1325, made in England

Medieval secular embroidery was widely produced and worn. Examples are few as these garments and hangings were worn, altered, taken apart and remade. Banners were made and used for tournaments and ceremonial occasions. Much of the evidence for these embroideries comes from paintings and illuminated manuscripts. Household bookkeeping also details furnishings, clothes and costs.

By the end of the early medieval period embroidery had already taken a position of high status, being held in higher esteem than painting or illumination, both of which were influenced by embroidery. (A period in time when needlework was regarded as a true art and respected more than fine art). It was a favourite pursuit of Anglo-Norman ladies as well as being worked on a professional basis in workshops and church institutions.

Between 1350 and 1450 English embroiderers produced superbly embroidered garments using various silk and gold threads. The work was known as opus anglicanum (Englishwork) and some regard it as the finest period of English embroidery. The embroideries were exported throughout Europe. Silk threads were used for colouring and shading and for couching the gold thread.

When couching the silk threads were used to great effect to form diagonal or “brick stitch” patterns. Various coloured silks were used strikingly to form pictures over the gold threads known as Or nue (shaded gold). Gaps are left between the silk to allow the gold to shine through. Or nue creates the most wonderful pictorial scenes but is very painstaking work.

A technique known as underside couching was commonly used at this time (though it declined in the fifteenth century). To work underside couching the material must be under tension (i.e. stretched on a frame) and a loop of linen thread was used to couch but it was pulled to the back of the work – taking a small loop of gold thread with it. This entirely concealed the linen thread and made the fabric very flexible.

Embroideries were often embellished with pearls, precious gems, gold and silver as well as enamelled plaques. These transformed the garments into powerful symbols of status and wealth and were seen widely in church and royal garments. The extreme value of these garments often lead to their destruction. As the garments wore out or went out of fashion the gold thread and embellishments were removed and recycled onto new clothes.

Opus anglicanum work was technically exceptionally and used only the highest quality materials. Fine artists drew the designs, possibly manuscript artists. Designs were mostly drawn directly onto the cloth, which would be stretched on a frame. The introduction of velvet later in the century posed a problem for embroidery and in this case embroidery was often worked on another cloth and appliquéd into place on the velvet.

The overall designs included circles and geometric patterns all containing figures and scenes. The finest surviving examples were made in London between 1275 and 1335 BC.

It is thought that embroiderers formed a Guild during the fourteenth century, though a charter was not granted until 1561. There was a high standard of workmanship attained with strict controls and long apprenticeships of eight years. At this time more men were involved in the profession and it is possible that London had family dynasties handing down skills through the family as well as to apprentices. Of course there would also have been smaller enterprises throughout the country and from surviving paperwork we know of several husband and wife businesses.

The concern for high standards of craftsmanship included the standard of gold thread used. The manufacture of this thread was a skilled occupation and earned higher wages than the embroiderers who used the thread. It was made by hand, by spinning narrow strips of gold or silver-gilt around a silk thread core.

Opus anglicanum declined following the Black Death in 1348 - which decimated the population, killing one third of the population and causing subsequent general unrest in the country. Techniques and materials changed; a greater use was made of imported material from Italy – brocades and velvets were used for the main body of copes and chasubles and needlework became limited to borders and applied pieces. Weaving now became more important than embroidery. The draughtsmanship was not as fine and cheaper and quicker methods of working were introduced. Stitches that were quicker to work became popular – satin, brick, long and short stitch, surface couching and stem instead of the tiny laborious split stitch.

During this century there is evidence for other forms of embroidery. Very few examples survive but we know from documentary evidence that appliqué was frequently employed. Outline and filling stitches include stem stitch (the most common), split and chain stitch. Counted thread work such as cross stitch and drawn work became more common towards the end of the century. Quilting had was used for creating protective doublets for wearing under armour where vertical, diagonal or cross hatching patterns were employed.

LINKS

To see the different types of goldwork thread (and purchase them) see here and here

More information on the needlework of the fourteenth century in England and Europe here

Or Nue information here

General information from the V&A musuem here

Part three - Following Bayeux

English Embroidery 900-1299AD

Sorry I'm a day late - a family wedding away from home took up all weekend and then blogger refused to save! So frustrating! Here is the third part of the history. Next week we will look at the golden age of English Goldwork.

Henry II (1154AD), the first of the Plantagenet kings, ruled a kingdom that incorporated land from England down to the Mediterranean and across to the Pyrenees. Influences on costumes, customs and embroidery would have been heavily influenced by European trends.

The Clare Chasuble 1272-1294AD

Techniques used- Silk, satin weave, embroidered with silver-gilt, silver and coloured silk thread, thought to be woven in China and embroidered in England.

There is limited evidence of the costumes from this early period and very little evidence for embroidery as very few items have survived. Most information comes from drawings in manuscripts and sculptures. See the “links” section below for examples.

Information on female clothing is also gathered from descriptions in poetry and prose and from the wills of wealthy women. Cloaks were common outer garments and were pulled over the head to form a hood. Some cloaks were more of a constructed garment - a type of sleeveless tunic, with or without a hood. A moderately fitted undergarment was worn underneath. It was ankle length with straight sleeves, sometimes bound with a sash.

The wealthy and religious classes could have worn imported silks - often embroidered in gold. There are reports of jewelled robes and cloaks interwoven with gold and William the Conquerors wife Matilda was said to have worn a cloak “of gold”. Embroidery seems to appear on cuffs and occasionally on headdresses, rarely there is a suggestion of ornamentation on the skirts or gowns. It is hard to see sometimes from pictures we have of this age, as drawings were often done only in outline and many drawings were uncoloured.

Men are more often depicted in manuscripts, sculptures and surviving embroidered panels and so it is easier to describe their costumes. But again the drawings are often stylised and details of the costumes are often omitted.

Again cloaks were a major feature and were square or rectangle – but not tailored. The long gown for men was introduced about 957, although the short tunic is seen as an alternative. The tunic is the garment most often seen in Anglo-Saxon art and is often depicted as knee length or shorter. Often it appears that a belt or girdle was fastened around the waist. Under the tunic (often made of wool) a linen shirt would have been worn and a pair of leggings.

Part of a buskin (soft knee length boot). 1220-1250AD. Woven silk twill, embroidered with silver-gilt thread and silks.

Around 1200AD Men’s clothing consisted of a tunic characterised by a wide decorated band at the neck and a large gusset at the arm hole that extended almost to the waist. Women’s clothing was similar with long hanging cuffs. A cloak was worn by both sexes developing from a semi-circular to a circular form.

Ecclesiastical vestments were richly decorated with embroidery but there seems to have been little embroidery on civil costume in the thirteenth century. Secular costumes are usually decorated on the borders of garments. A common design involved scrollwork and foliated spirals.

Some fragments of embroidered costumes do survive. From Alfriston in Sussex there is a belt embroidered in a geometric design, there is a scrap of checked cloth with a leaf scroll in stem and satin stitch from Hampshire and a linen twill fabric with an interlace design in red, yellow and blue from Bedfordshire.

LINKS

From the V&A Collection here and here

Booklist from the V & A

Books online here and here

Illustrations here and here

Fabric details

Museum of London medieval artifacts – general items, some textile related

A note on textile production in Anglo-Saxon England

Evidence comes from pieces of found textiles and from the equipment used in the manufacture of textiles. Textile fragments are usually very small, but many exist – usually from burial sites, amongst them the Sutton Hoo burial (see links below). Excavations of cities such as York, Winchester and London have also revealed fragments of cloth. During excavations of settlements and female burials, loom weights and iron spindles have been found.

Spinning was women’s work and for all but the high-ranking women must have been a common occupation. (The word spinster meaning “spinner” has today become a general title). Spinning was carried out by hand as the spinning wheel was yet to be invented. The spinners would spin either Z or S spun threads and the weavers knew how to use these different threads to create different effects. Sometimes more than one thread would be spun together to make multiple ply’s.

Braids were made and used as belts, cuffs and ornamental edging on garments. Several colour combinations have been found and the colours were often bright. Braids were sometimes embellished with additional needlework, including goldwork.

Weaving was also mainly women’s work during this period. Ornamental braids were often incorporated as edgings for blankets and cloaks. Looms were often propped against walls and the weaver would stand, not sit. There is evidence that weaving would have been carried out with two people working together as the heddle bars are too wide for one person to manoeuvre. The warp-weighted loom was not capable of producing bales of cloth as the length of the finished piece was dependant on the height of the loom. It is thought that within the village, there would have been buildings solely for weaving.

Tabby, or plain weave was the most commonly woven. Patterned twills were known but are much rarer and were probably luxury fabrics. Various colours of sheep’s wool would have been combined into patterns (such as stripes and checks) and much of the woollen clothing found is undyed.

The majority of textile fragments are of sheep’s wool with finds of vegetable fibre much rarer. This may, however, be an accident of preservation. Linen was woven in a plain weave. Silk, imported from Persia was reserved for the very wealthy and for church use. By the tenth and eleventh centuries there are reports of merchants bringing silks and luxury textiles into England. Silk thread was also imported for embroidery and it is possible that larger amounts were imported for weaving.

Once woven the cloth was “finished” and finishing industries were major businesses in the later Middle Ages. Wool was fulled (scoured, bleached and beaten), teased and sheared to give a felt like fabric. Linen would have been smoothed and bleached.

Cloth was dyed (although historians assume that peasants would have worn undyed garments). Many colours are recorded in documents including blue, yellow and red and many different shades would have been possible

LINKS

Sutton Hoo Burial

Book list on all forms of dyeing, textile production etc

About the treasure found